Map of Cell & Genetics
One level below the body — living organelles, DNA → protein, cell division, bacteria & viruses, and the immune defense line.
≈ 10⁻⁵ m · cell → moleculeAnimal Cell Tế bào động vật
Organelle cross-section: cytoplasm streaming, ribosomes translating, ER→Golgi vesicles and mitochondria pulsing out ATP.
DNA → Protein DNA → Phiên mã → Dịch mã
Polymerase sliding along DNA releasing mRNA, the ribosome reading codon by codon to build protein; enter a sequence to see mutations.
Bacteria Vi khuẩn & Kháng sinh
A bacterial population swims and divides exponentially; drop in antibiotics and the plasmid-carrying resistant strain survives and takes over.
Virus Virus & Xâm nhiễm
Viral spikes fit the receptor, hijack host ribosomes to mass-produce then burst the cell; a vaccine blocks the binding.
Plant Cell Tế bào thực vật
A cellulose wall, a large turgid vacuole and photosynthetic chloroplasts — clearly different from an animal cell.
Mitosis & Meiosis Phân bào
Chromosomes duplicate, the spindle pulls them to two poles then the cell pinches in two; switch mitosis ↔ meiosis.
Immunity Miễn dịch tế bào
Macrophages engulf pathogens, T/B lymphocytes activate and fire Y-shaped antibodies; with immune memory.
Respiration Hô hấp tế bào
Mitochondria burn glucose with O₂ via glycolysis → Krebs → the electron transport chain, making ~30–32 ATP; without O₂ only 2 ATP (fermentation).
Membrane Vận chuyển qua màng
A phospholipid bilayer with ion channels & the Na-K pump: diffusion, osmosis (cells swelling/shrinking), active transport costing ATP.
Genetics Di truyền Mendel
Cross dominant/recessive pea plants, fill a Punnett square of gamete combinations and count offspring ratios: 3:1, 9:3:3:1, test cross, incomplete dominance.
CRISPR CRISPR & Chỉnh gen
A guide RNA brings Cas9 to the right gene (beside the PAM) → cuts the double strand → the cell repairs: knock-out or insert a gene.
Cancer Đột biến → Ung thư
Accumulating mutations release the cell’s brakes (broken p53) → endless division into a tumor → recruiting blood vessels → metastasis spreads.
Protein Folding Gấp protein
A chain of amino acids folds into a 3D shape: α-helix, β-sheet, a hydrophobic core; shape decides function, misfolding → disease.
Stem Cells Tế bào gốc & Biểu sinh
One genome becoming every cell type: differentiation, epigenetics (genes on/off), iPSC reprogramming.
Microbiome Hệ vi sinh vật
Trillions of gut bacteria balancing good/bad: digesting fiber, making vitamins, training immunity, the gut–brain axis.
Epigenetics Biểu sinh
The same genome switched on/off differently: DNA methylation & histone modification decide which genes are active.
Chromosomes Nhiễm sắc thể & Telomere
DNA coils into an X-shaped chromosome; with each division the telomeres at the four tips shorten — a clock counting the cell’s age.
PCR & Sequencing PCR & Giải trình tự gen
Hot–cold cycles double the DNA each round (1→2→4→…→billions of copies) then read the A·T·G·C sequence — the tech behind testing & forensics.
Cell Signaling Tín hiệu tế bào
One hormone molecule touches a membrane receptor and a protein cascade amplifies the signal to the nucleus, switching genes on. One broken link and it is cancer.
Cytoskeleton Khung xương & Vận động tế bào
Microtubules and actin filaments build and tear down without pause, while kinesin motors walk cargo along the rails so the cell holds shape and divides.